The research was envisaged to last 30 months. One of the consequences of the pandemic was that initial access in early 2020 was challenging and we sought an extension to 36 months. Hence the project began in early 2020 and ran up till the end of 2022. There were two phases to the project. Phase one entailed a Qualitative Comparative Analysis (QAC) to analyse conditions of 10 cases of social innovation in and around MNCs. Phase 2 consisted of semi-structured interviews examine four research question related to social innovation i) interests and motivations of social innovation ii) skills and resources of social innovation iii) inhibiting and enabling institutional factors of social innovation iv) outcomes of social innovation.This project analysed social innovations relating to inequality that are carried out by social activists in and around multinational companies (MNCs) in five national contexts. Defined as the “innovative activities and services that are motivated by the goal of meeting a social need” (Mulgan, 2006, p. 146), particularly those arising from social divides within society and the corporate responsibilities towards the externalities that MNCs create, we considered when and how some actors within MNCs engage in innovative activities that address such social divides, with a view to understanding whether and how such initiatives contribute to inclusive growth and to sustainable development. Our primary focus is on the process of social innovation that pertains to inequality in general and the work of ‘social activists’ from both inside and beyond the boundaries of these companies. We studied social innovation as a combination of not only top-down initiatives led by executives and those close to them, but also bottom-up processes led by social activists from a range of backgrounds and positions. We sought to understand the dynamics of such social innovations as regards which actors are taking them forward, what these initiatives concern, what resources are deployed, how such initiatives span the boundaries of companies and civil societies, and whether and why they are successful. We addressed the opportunities and challenges for the scaling up of social innovations through MNCs’ transnational networks, which are a key driver of transformations in both developed and emerging economies on both sides of the Atlantic.

Phase 1 was exploratory and involved the identification of cases of social innovation in a range of MNCs and their networks, which included firms in business services where social innovations took the form attempts to shed an image of being elitist through extending access to professions across socio-economic groups; in mining where past deleterious effects of the industry on indigenous communities highlighted the need for inclusive policies and economic development; and financial services, where the role of banks in combatting human trafficking and refugee inclusion was evident. This phase of research consisted of at least two interviews in each case of social innovation in over 10 MNCs and their networks across the countries. The vast majority of interviews conducted for this period which were carried out between March 2020 and June 2021. During phase one, we explored the varying interests (RQ1) and resources, strategies and social skills (RQ2) of social activists and made use of dual interviewers (researchers from two countries) in some cases in order to canvass the diversity of types of social innovation and types of social activists across countries (RQ3). Phase 2 explored the process and impact of social innovation in a small number of ‘critical cases’. This entailed a more in-depth analysis of the interests of the key social activists, the resources and social skills they draw on and the strategies that they pursue (RQs 1 and 2), and the ways in which they are constrained and facilitated by national differences in work context (RQ3). This phase also involved an assessment and explanation of the outcomes of social innovation (RQ4). To achieve this, we collected archival data, conducted observations and focus groups where possible and carried out a range of in-depth interviews with key individuals in each case, not just those directly linked to the process of social innovation but also with a range of NGO staff, representatives of disadvantaged communities and those from a range of points within the value chains. In total, we have conducted 63 interviews in this phase, mainly in the second half of 2021 and through 2022. Some fieldwork is ongoing in this phase. There were three broader cases that we refer to as social movements. Of these the data sharing includes one movement. This is specific to sustainable finance as an overarching movement across different MNCs. There are 18 interviews for this particular case. The instances of social innovation in Phase 2 were diverse in the nature and were selected on the basis of themes or intriguing phenomena encountered during phase 1. Given the uncertainty concerning where precisely cases of social innovation were to be found, we adopted an approach of “following the story” rather than focus on pre-determined issues. Many instances of social innovation involving MNCs are driven through networks of ‘activists’ involved in advancing a particular cause, such as inclusion of marginalised or disadvantaged groups, sustainable finance or assistance to social enterprises. Some actors within MNCs were indeed active in these processes, exhibiting a commitment to bring about social change, but their networks outside the firm were often important in bringing about change. Hence, we organised our case selection not around companies per se but rather around the theme or phenomenon.